Classes

“Classes are user-defined types, defined by class-specifier”
The class specifier has the following syntax:
- class-key attr(optional) class-head-name final(optional) base-clause(optional) { member-specification }
class-key
- one of class, struct and union.
  - The keywords class and struct are identical except for
    - the default member access and
    - the default base class access.
  - If it is union, the declaration introduces a union type.
declaration of objects:
- class ClassName item1; (inherited from C) is equivalent to ClassName item1;
forward declaration: declare a class without defining it
- incomplete type: After a declaration and before a definition is seen, the class type is an incomplete type - it’s known that the type is a class type but not known what members that type contains
- A class must be defined - not just declared - before
  - we can write code that creates objects of that type
  - a reference or pointer is used to access a member of the type
a class
- cannot have data members of its own type
- can have data members that are pointers or references to its own type

Order of Compilation

compile order: two steps

member declarations
member function bodies, if any

Therefore, data members can be used inside member function bodies, even if the data members are declared after the member function bodies.

Class Types

struct

struct is a class-key (see above)
when we define a class intending for all of its members to be public, we use struct.
- If we intend to have private members, then we use class.

From stackoverflow:

In C++ the only difference between a class and a struct is that members and base classes are private by default in classes, whereas they are public by default in structs.
So structs can have constructors, and the syntax is the same as for classes.

Why use typedef struct?

From Why should we typedef a struct so often in C? - Stack Overflow:

no longer have to write struct all over the place
can make the code cleaner since it provides a smidgen more abstraction

union

union is a class-key (see above)
“A union is a special class type that can hold only one of its non-static data members at a time.”
like a “room in a hotel”, stackoverflow

Scope

A class is a scope.

therefore, when we define a member function outside its class, we must provide the class name as well as the function name
Outside of the class, the names of the members are hidden
Once the class name is seen, the remainder of the definition - including the parameter list and the function body - is in the scope of the class
- As a result, we can refer to other class members without qualification (in the parameter list and in the function body)
- BUT: The member function name and its return type, however, must be qualified.

Namespace

::ClassName

From stackoverflow:

This ensures that resolution occurs from the global namespace, instead of starting at the namespace you’re currently in. For instance, if you had two different classes called Configuration as such:

class Configuration; // class 1, in global namespace
namespace MyApp
{
    class Configuration; // class 2, different from class 1
    function blah()
    {
        // resolves to MyApp::Configuration, class 2
        Configuration::doStuff(...) 
        // resolves to top-level Configuration, class 1
        ::Configuration::doStuff(...)
    }
}

Basically, it allows you to traverse up to the global namespace since your name might get clobbered by a new definition inside another namespace, in this case MyApp.

Constructors

“Constructors do not have names” ([class.ctor], N3337)
“Classes control object initialization by defining one or more special member functions known as constructors.”
order:
- 1) base members
- 2) members are initialized in the constructor initializer list
  - members omitted in the constructor initializer list are default initialized
    - proofs: cppreference:
      - in “Default Initialization”: “3) when a base class or a non-static data member is not mentioned in a constructor initializer list and that constructor is called.”
      - in “Constructors and member initializer lists”: “The member initializer list is the place where non-default initialization of these (data member) objects can be specified.”, implies that default initialization is the default behavior (for omitted data members)
- 3) the constructor body is executed
  - members can be assigned in the constructor body, but they cannot be initialized there!
Constructors
- have the same name as the class.
- control
  - object initialization
  - what happens when we copy, assign, or destroy objects of the class type
    - copy:
      - when we initialize a variable or
      - when we pass or return an object by value
    - assign: when we use the assignment operator
    - destroy:
      - local object: destroyed on exit from the block in which it was created
      - Objects stored in a vector (or an array): destroyed when that vector (or array) is destroyed
    - If we do not define these operations, the compiler will synthesize them for us.
      - the versions that the compiler generates for us execute by copying, assigning, or destroying each member of the object
      - Warning: “classes that manage dynamic memory, generally cannot rely on the synthesized versions of these operations”
        
        but if you use vector and string to manage dynamic memory the synthesized versions for copy, assignment and destruction will work
- are special member functions, but
  - have no return type
  - must not be declared as const
a class may have multiple constructors (→ overloading)
can write to const objects during their construction

Default Constructor

“a constructor which can be called with no arguments” (cppreference)
“called during
- default initializations and
- value initializations”
1) explicitly defined default constructor
2) synthesized default constructor (implicitly defined default constructor)
- the compiler implicitly defines this constructor, if we do not explicitly define one
  - but only if a class declares NO constructors
- member initialization
  - if there is an in-class initializer, use it to initialize the member
  - else default initialize the member
situations in which we must explicitly define a default constructor:
- 1. we have defined at least one constructor, and therefore, the compiler will not generate a default constructor
- 1. to make sure that class members of built-in types or compound types cannot end up uninitialized
    - in blocks: objects of built-in or compound type that are defined inside a block have undefined value when they are default initialized (see “Default Initialization”)
- 1. when the compiler cannot synthesize a default constructor
defaulted default constructor
- C++11
- we can ask the compiler to generate the constructor for us by writing = default after the parameter list
  - this constructor does exactly the same work as the synthesized default constructor
best practice:
- “it is almost always right to provide a default constructor if other constructors (that are not special member functions) are being defined.” (Lip)
- “avoid explicit (= user-defined) implementation of default constructor” (from slides)
  - ie. prefer either = default or a synthesized default constructor
see default arguments:
- “A constructor that supplies default arguments for all its parameters also defines the default constructor.” (7.5.1 “Default Arguments and Constructors”)

Constructor Initializer List

either
- direct initialization (see “Case 3” → “Direct Initialization”)
  - recall: direct initialization selects by overload resolution
- value initialization (if empty pair of parentheses or braces)

cppreference: (aka “member initializer list”)

“The body of a function definition of any constructor, before the opening brace of the compound statement (see statements), may include the member initializer list, whose syntax is the colon character :, followed by the comma-separated list of one or more member-initializers, each of which has the following syntax …”
“Before the compound statement that forms the function body of the constructor begins executing, initialization of all direct bases, virtual bases, and non-static data members is finished.”
“The member initializer list is the place where non-default initialization of these objects can be specified.”
- thus, all members omitted in the member initializer list are default initialized

Initialization vs Assignment

if you do not use constructor initializers, you do not “initialize” the members, but you “assign” values to the members (recall, in C++: assign != initialize) (7.5.1 “Constructors Revisited” → “Constructor Initializer List”)

Omitted Members

When a member is omitted from the constructor initializer list, it is implicitly initialized using the same process as is used by the synthesized default constructor (7.1.4 “Constructors” → “Constructor Initializer List”)
- best practice:
  - constructors should “use an in-class initializer if one exists and gives the member the correct value”, i.e. “constructors should not override in-class initializers”
  - phth: if there are no in-class initializers for a class or your compiler does not support in-class initializers, then built-in types must be explicitly initialized in the constructor initializer list (because otherwise they will be uninitialized, see “synthesized default constructor”)
“If we do not explicitly initialize a member in the constructor initializer list, that member is default initialized before the constructor body starts executing” (7.5.1 “Constructors Revisited” → “Constructor Initializer List”)

When constructor initializers are REQUIRED

“We must use the constructor initializer list to provide values for members that are …
- const,
- reference, or
- of a class type that does not have a default constructor.”
best practice: By routinely using constructor initializers, you can avoid being surprised by compile-time errors when you have a class with a member that requires a constructor initializer

Order of Member Initialization

best practice:

write constructor initializers in the same order as the members are declared.
when possible, avoid using members to initialize other members.
write member initializers to use the constructor’s parameters rather than another data member from the same object (see Example 2)

Example 1:

// the constructor initializer makes it appear as if j is initialized with val
// and then j is used to initialize i. However, i is initialized first. The effect of this
// initializer is to initialize i with the undefined value of j!
class X {
  int i;
  int j;
public:
  // undefined: i is initialized before j
  X(int val): j(val), i(j) { }
};

Example 2:

// clearer than Example 1
// because the order in which i and j are initialized doesn't matter.
X(int val): i(val), j(val) { }

Delegating Constructor

“In a delegating constructor, the member initializer list has a single entry that is the name of the class itself. Like other member initializers, the name of the class is followed by a parenthesized list of arguments. The argument list must match another constructor in the class.”

Converting Constructor

Implicit Class-Type Conversion
cppreference: “Implicit conversion is defined in terms of copy-initialization: if an object of type T can be copy-initialized with expression E, then E is implicitly convertible to T.”
“A constructor that can be called with a single argument defines an implicit conversion from the constructor’s parameter type to the class type.”
only one implicit class type conversion is allowed (p.295)

explicit

disable the implicit conversion by declaring the converting constructor as explicit
- you can use explicit on constructors with a single argument only
- use explicit only on the constructor declaration inside the class
- explicit constructors can be used only with direct initialization (see Example 1)
  - because copy initialization triggers an implicit class type conversion which the explicit does not allow
“use explicit for constructors that take a single argument unless there is a good reason not to” (BS6.1.2)

Example 1:

Sales_data item1(null_book); // ok: direct initialization
// error: cannot use the copy form of initialization with an explicit constructor
Sales_data item2 = null_book;

Example 2:

the vector constructor that takes a single size parameter is explicit

void f(vector<int>); // f’s parameter is copy initialized
f(10); // error: can’t use an explicit constructor to copy an argument
f(vector<int>(10)); // ok: directly construct a temporary vector from an int

Constructors throwing Exceptions

From isocpp:

Every data member inside your object should clean up its own mess
If a constructor throws an exception, the object’s destructor is not run
- Therefore, if your object has already done something that needs to be undone (such as allocating some memory, opening a file, or locking a semaphore), this “stuff that needs to be undone” must be remembered by a data member inside the object.

From isocpp:

Note: if a constructor finishes by throwing an exception, the memory associated with the object itself is cleaned up - there is no memory leak
For example:

void f()
{
  X x;             // If X::X() throws, the memory for x itself will not leak
  Y* p = new Y();  // If Y::Y() throws, the memory for *p itself will not leak
}

related: “Handle a Constructor that fails” → Notes on “Exception Handling”

Copy Control

controlled by 5 special member functions (“copy-control members”):
- copy constructor,
- copy-assignment operator,
- move constructor,
- move-assignment operator, and
- destructor
“If a class does not define all of the copy-control members, the compiler automatically defines the missing operations”
- member-wise: “the versions that the compiler generates for us execute by copying, assigning, or destroying each member of the object.”

Copy Constructor

used for initialization (direct and copy forms), whereas the Copy-Assignment Operator is used for assignment

Lippman, 13.1.1 “The Copy Constructor”

“A constructor is the copy constructor if
- its first parameter is a reference to the class type (eg. T&, const T&) and
- any additional parameters have default values”
“almost always a reference to const” (although it can be a reference to nonconst)
“the copy constructor usually should not be explicit”
- because it is often used for implicit conversion (see converting constructor)

class Foo {
public:
  Foo();             // default constructor
  Foo(const Foo&);   // copy constructor
  // ...
};

“called whenever an object is initialized (by direct-initialization or copy-initialization) from another object of the same type, which includes”
- initialization: T a = b; or T a(b);, where b is of type T;
- function argument passing: f(a);, where a is of type T and f is void f(T t);
- function return: return a; inside a function such as T f(), where a is of type T, which has no move constructor.
“the compiler is permitted (but not obligated) to skip the copy/move constructor and create the object directly” (see Example 1)

Example 1:

string null_book = "9-999-99999-9"; // copy initialization
// may be rewritten to
string null_book("9-999-99999-9"); // compiler omits the copy constructor

Defined as deleted (see p.508, 538), if

the class has a member whose own copy constructor is deleted or inaccessible.
the class has a member with a deleted or inaccessible destructor.
see “synthesized as deleted” in section “delete”
- in essence, if a class has a data member that cannot be default constructed, copied, assigned, or destroyed, then the corresponding copy-control member will be a deleted function
we define a move constructor

Synthesized Copy Constructor

for some classes disallows copying objects of that class type
copies the members of its argument into the object being created memberwise
unlike the synthesized default constructor, it is synthesized even if we define other constructors
the synthesized constructor is equivalent to using a constructor initializer list, see example on p.497
always uses direct initialization
- if the synthesized copy constructor belongs to a class or struct, but not if it belongs to a union
- cppreference: “For non-union class types (class and struct), the constructor performs full member-wise copy of the object’s bases and non-static members, in their initialization order, using direct initialization.”
type of member determines how the member is copied
- class type: copied by the class’ copy constructor (using direct initialization)
- built-in type: copied directly (direct initialization)
- array: copied elementwise (using direct initialization)
problem with pointer members:
- “Let the compiler generate the copy operations by =default if they do not handle resources.” (from slides)
- see Memberwise Assignment Example
  - In class StudentTestScores the member testScores is a pointer. In StudentTestScores student2 = student1; student2’s testScores member simply gets a copy of the address stored in student1’s testScores member. Both pointers will point to the same address.
    - thus, the StudentTestScores class provides pointer-like behavior, although we want valuelike behavior
  - other examples for pointer-like vs valuelike behavior:
    - shared_ptr class provides pointer-like behavior
    - the library containers and string class have valuelike behavior

Copy-Assignment Operator

“a (…) member function with the name operator= that takes exactly one parameter of type T, T&, const T&”

class-name& class-name::operator=(const class-name&)   // (2)

used for assignment, whereas the Copy Constructor is used for initialization
“called whenever selected by overload resolution, e.g. when an object appears on the left side of an assignment expression”

Defined as deleted (see p.508, 538), if

a member has a deleted or inaccessible copy-assignment operator, or
the class has a const or reference member.
see “synthesized as deleted” in section “delete”
- in essence, if a class has a data member that cannot be default constructed, copied, assigned, or destroyed, then the corresponding copy-control member will be a deleted function
we define a move-assignment operator

Synthesized Copy-Assignment Operator

T& T::operator=(const T&)
// or:
T& T::operator=(T&)

for some classes disallows assignment
analogue to synthesized copy constructor
memberwise: assign each member of rhs object to lhs object (using copy-assignment operator for the type of that member)
- arrays: elementwise
returns a reference to its lhs object (via return *this)

Valuelike Copy-Assignment Operator

combine the actions of the destructor and the copy constructor
must handle self-assignment
- always create a local temporary before using delete (see example below)
must be exception safe
- ie. will leave the left-hand operand in a sensible state should an exception occur
  - If an exception occurs, it will happen before we have changed the left-hand operand.
a good pattern to use:

HasPtr& HasPtr::operator=(const HasPtr &rhs)
{
  auto newp = new string(*rhs.ps);  // copy the underlying string (into a local temporary)
  delete ps;                        // free the old memory
  ps = newp;                        // copy data from rhs (now in the temporary) into this object
  i = rhs.i;
  return *this;                     // return this object
}

Pointerlike Copy-Assignment Operator

Ways to implement:

easiest way: use shared_ptrs to manage the resources in the class.
Sometimes we want to manage a resource directly. In such cases, it can be useful to use a reference count.

Reference Counting:

In addition to initializing the object, each constructor (other than the copy constructor) creates a counter (which is in stored in dynamic memory).
The copy constructor increments the shared counter.
The destructor decrements the counter.
The copy-assignment operator increments the right-hand operand’s counter and decrements the counter of the left-hand operand. If the counter for the left-hand operand goes to zero, the copy-assignment operator must destroy the state of the left-hand operand.

HasPtr& HasPtr::operator=(const HasPtr &rhs)
{
  ++*rhs.use;                   // increment the use count of the right-hand operand
  if (--*use == 0) {            // then decrement this object's counter
    delete ps;                  // if no other users
    delete use;                 // free this object's allocated members
  }
  ps = rhs.ps;                  // copy data from rhs into this object
  i = rhs.i;
  use = rhs.use;
  return *this;                 // return this object
}

Copy-and-Swap Assignment Operator

classes that manage resources often also define a function named swap
- particularly important for classes that we plan to use with algorithms that reorder elements
  - If a class defines its own swap, then the algorithm uses that class-specific version.
  - Otherwise, it uses the swap function defined by the library.
the library swap makes unnecessary copies, so define a custom version for your class

The idea:

// the library's "swap":
// will make three copy operations
// (none of these 3 memory allocations is necessary)
HasPtr temp = v1;     // make a temporary copy of the value of v1 (1st copy of the string that was originally in v1)
v1 = v2;              // assign the value of v2 to v1 (a copy of the string that was originally in v2)
v2 = temp;            // assign the saved value of v1 to v2 (2nd copy of the string that was originally in v1)

// better, our "swap":
// only "swap the pointers"
string *temp = v1.ps;   // make a temporary copy of the pointer in v1.ps
v1.ps = v2.ps;          // assign the pointer in v2.ps to v1.ps        
v2.ps = temp;           // assign the saved pointer in v1.ps to v2.ps  

A swap function and Copy-and-Swap Assignment Operator for the HasPtr class:

class HasPtr {
  friend void swap(HasPtr&, HasPtr&);
  // other members as in § 13.2.1 (p. 511)
};
inline
void swap(HasPtr &lhs, HasPtr &rhs)
{
  using std::swap;        // does NOT hide the declarations for the HasPtr version of swap
                          // - type-specific version of swap will be a better match
                          // - library version of swap will be used, if there is no type-specific version
  swap(lhs.ps, rhs.ps);   // swap the pointers, not the string data
  swap(lhs.i, rhs.i);     // swap the int members
}

// note rhs is passed by value, which means the HasPtr copy constructor
// copies the string in the right-hand operand into rhs
HasPtr& HasPtr::operator=(HasPtr rhs)
{
  // swap the contents of the left-hand operand with the local variable rhs
  swap(*this, rhs);   // rhs now points to the memory this object had used
  return *this;       // rhs is destroyed, which deletes the pointer in rhs
}

Assignment operators that use copy and swap …

are automatically exception safe
- ie. will leave the left-hand operand in a sensible state should an exception occur
  - The only code that might throw is the new expression inside the copy constructor.
  - If an exception occurs, it will happen before we have changed the left-hand operand.
correctly handle self-assignment

Destructor

~ class-name ();

“is the complement of a constructor” (BS5.2.2)
“called when the lifetime of an object ends.”
“The purpose of the destructor is to free the resources that the object may have acquired during its lifetime.”
no return value
takes no parameters
order:
- 1) function body is executed
  - typically, frees resources an object allocated during its lifetime
- 2) (nonstatic) members are destroyed
  - in reverse order from the order in which they were initialized
destruction part is implicit
- cannot control how members are destroyed
  - whereas for constructors constructor initializer lists can control how members are initialized
what happens when a member is destroyed:
- class type:
  - running the member’s own destructor
- built-in types:
  - do not have destructors, so nothing is done
- built-in pointer type:
  - does not delete the object to which that pointer points
    - Note: if you want to delete the object use smart pointers (which are class types)
called when
- variables: when they go out of scope
- members of an object: when the object is destroyed
- elements of a container: when a container is destroyed
- dynamically allocated objects: delete is applied to a pointer to the object
- temporaries: at the end of the creating expression
not called when
- a reference to an object goes out of scope
- a pointer to an object goes out of scope

Defined as deleted (p. 508), if

the class has a member whose own destructor is deleted or is inaccessible (e.g., private).
see “synthesized as deleted” in section “delete”
- in essence, if a class has a data member that cannot be default constructed, copied, assigned, or destroyed, then the corresponding copy-control member will be a deleted function
prefer the (default) generated destructor to empty destructor. (from slides)

Synthesized Destructor

is automatically defined for any class that does not define its own destructor
for some classes disallows destruction
otherwise, the synthesized destructor has an empty function body
members are automatically destroyed AFTER the (empty) destructor body is run
- Important: Members are destroyed as part of the implicit destruction phase that follows the destructor body
example

// no work to do other than destroying the members, which happens automatically AFTER the destructor body
~Sales_data() { }   // equivalent to the synthesized `Sales_data` destructor

Destructors throwing Exceptions

destructors should never throw exceptions that the destructor itself does not handle
- best practice: if a destructor does an operation that might throw, it should wrap that operation in a try block and handle it locally to the destructor.
in practice, because destructors free resources (and do not allocate → bad_alloc exception), it is unlikely that they will throw exceptions
- All of the standard library types guarantee that their destructors will not raise an exception

Rule of 3/5/0

From stackoverflow:

The full name of the rule is the rule of 3/5/0.

It doesn’t say “always provide all five”. It says that you have to either provide the three, the five, or none of them.

cppreference:

rule of 3: “If a class requires a user-defined destructor, a user-defined copy constructor, or a user-defined copy assignment operator, it almost certainly requires all three.”
rule of 5: “any class for which move semantics are desirable, has to declare all five special member functions”
- “Because the presence of a user-defined (or = default or = delete declared) destructor, copy-constructor, or copy-assignment operator prevents implicit definition of the move constructor and the move assignment operator”
- “Unlike Rule of Three, failing to provide move constructor and move assignment is usually not an error, but a missed optimization opportunity.”
rule of 0: “Classes that have custom destructors, copy/move constructors or copy/move assignment operators should deal exclusively with ownership (which follows from the Single Responsibility Principle). Other classes should not have custom destructors, copy/move constructors or copy/move assignment operators”.
- “This rule also appears in the C++ Core Guidelines as C.20: If you can avoid defining default operations, do.”

Lip:

rule 0: define all of the copy-control members or none (using the default for all)
- it is unusual to need one without needing to define them all
rule 1: “Classes That Need Destructors Need Copy and Assignment”
- decide first whether the class needs a destructor (often more obvious than the need for copy constructor or assignment operator)
- if the class needs a destructor, it almost surely needs a copy constructor and copy-assignment operator as well
rule 2: “Classes That Need Copy Need Assignment, and Vice Versa”
why these rules? → read examples in the book
rule 3: “When a class has a pointer member, it is usually a good idea to be explicit about copy and move operations” (BS6.1.1)
- “Classes that define their own copy constructor and copy-assignment operator generally also benefit by defining the move operations” (Lippman)

From slides:

Best practice:

make intention explicit by use of =default and =delete

Moving Objects

useful if
- an object is immediately destroyed after it is copied
  - here, moving can provide a significant performance boost compared to copying
- for classes that have a resource that may not be shared
  - Hence, objects of these types cannot be copied but can be moved
  - examples
    - the IO classes (resource: an IO buffer)
    - unique_ptr class (resource: a pointer)
copying is expensive if the objects
- are large
- themselves require memory allocation (e.g., strings)
examples of classes that support
- move as well as copy: string, shared_ptr
- move, but not copy: IO classes, unique_ptr
Rvalue References were introduced by the new standard to support move operations

// Rvalues Are Moved, Lvalues Are Copied
// - constructor is chosen by ordinary function matching
StrVec v1, v2;
v1 = v2;                      // v2 is an lvalue; copy assignment
StrVec getVec(istream &);     // getVec returns an rvalue
v2 = getVec(cin);             // getVec(cin) is an rvalue; move assignment (because StrVec&& is an exact match)

// But Rvalues Are Copied If There Is No Move Constructor
// - even if we attempt to move them by calling std::move
class Foo {
  public:
    Foo() = default;
    Foo(const Foo&); // copy constructor
    // other members, but Foo does not define a move constructor
};
Foo x;
Foo y(x);               // copy constructor; x is an lvalue
Foo z(std::move(x));    // copy constructor, because there is no move constructor (no problem, this is safe!)

Both Move Operations

The move constructor and move-assignment operator are defined as deleted, if

in general, a move operation is never implicitly defined as a deleted function
if we explicitly ask the compiler to generate a move operation by using = default, and the compiler is unable to move all the members, then the move operation will be defined as deleted
rules (see p.538) for when a synthesized move operation is defined as deleted are analogous to those for the copy operations with one exception
- the exception: if the class has a member that
  - defines its own copy constructor but does not also define a move constructor, or
  - doesn’t define its own copy operations and for which the compiler is unable to synthesize a move constructor.
- otherwise, see “synthesized as deleted” in section “delete”
  - in essence, if a class has a data member that cannot be default constructed, copied, assigned, or destroyed, then the corresponding copy-control member will be a deleted function

// assume Y is a class that defines its own copy constructor but not a move constructor
struct hasY {
  hasY() = default;
  hasY(hasY&&) = default;
  Y mem; // hasY will have a deleted move constructor
};
hasY hy, hy2 = std::move(hy); // error: move constructor is deleted

Move Constructor

“a non-template constructor whose first parameter is T&&, const T&&, (…) and either there are no other parameters, or the rest of the parameters all have default values”
“The move constructor is typically called when an object is initialized (by direct-initialization or copy-initialization) from rvalue (xvalue or prvalue) (…) of the same type, including
- initialization: T a = std::move(b); or T a(std::move(b));, where b is of type T;
- function argument passing: f(std::move(a));, where a is of type T and f is void f(T t);
- function return: return a; inside a function such as T f(), where a is of type T which has a move constructor.”
“Move constructors typically “steal” the resources held by the argument (e.g. pointers to dynamically-allocated objects, file descriptors, TCP sockets, I/O streams, running threads, etc.) rather than make copies of them, and leave the argument in some valid but otherwise indeterminate state.”
- valid object: see move assignment operator

Lippman

1st parameter is an rvalue reference to the class type
additional parameters must all have default arguments (like for the copy constructor)
destructible state: must ensure that the moved-from object is left in a state such that destroying that object will be “harmless”
- original object must no longer point to those moved resources
- phth: eg. by resetting pointer members of the moved-from object (= the original object) to nullptr, otherwise, when the moved-from object gets destroyed, the destructor of the moved-from object will delete the memory to which the moved-to object’s (= the copied object’s) pointer members point
unlike a copy constructor, the move constructor does not itself allocate any resources, it takes over resources
- thus, will not throw any exceptions

StrVec::StrVec(StrVec &&s) noexcept // move won't throw any exceptions
  // member initializers take over the resources in s
  : elements(s.elements), first_free(s.first_free), cap(s.cap)
{
  // leave s in a state in which it is safe to run the destructor
  s.elements = s.first_free = s.cap = nullptr;
}

noexcept

a way to promise that a function does not throw any exceptions
move constructors and move assignment operators that cannot throw exceptions should be marked as noexcept
why is noexcept needed?
- unless the library knows that our move constructor will not throw, it will do extra work to cater to the possibliity that moving an object of our class type might throw.
- without noexcept (specified on the element type’s move constructor), in circumstances such as vector<elementType> reallocation, eg. when we call push_back, vector<elementType> MUST use elementType’s copy constructor instead of elementType’s move constructor
  - why “MUST”? - because vector guarantees that if an exception happens when we call push_back, the vector itself will be left unchanged (however, using a move constructor changes the vector itself and may possibly throw an exception)
    - (similarly, other library containers also provide guarantees as to what they do if an exception happens)
  - vector reallocation happens
  - more detailed explanation (see p.536)

// must specify on both:
// - the declaration in the class header
// - the definition if that definition appears outside the class
class StrVec {
  public:
    StrVec(StrVec&&) noexcept; // move constructor
    // other members as before
};
StrVec::StrVec(StrVec &&s) noexcept : /* member initializers */
{ /* constructor body */ }

a move constructor is supposed to remove (“steal”) the value from its argument.
Examples
- an integer returned by a function call is never used again, so you can safely “steal” its value/resources/state
After a move, the moved-from object should be in a state that allows a destructor to be run

std::move

calls the move constructor
- eg. “initialization: T a = std::move(b); or T a(std::move(b));, where b is of type T”
explicitly casts an lvalue to its corresponding rvalue reference type
in the utility header
returns an rvalue reference to its given object
- “It is exactly equivalent to a static_cast to an rvalue reference type.” (cppreference)
problem: we cannot directly bind rr1 to &&rr2
- solution: we can explicitly cast rr1 using std::move:

int &&rr1 = 42;             // ok: literals are rvalues
int &&rr2 = rr1;            // error: the expression rr1 is an lvalue!
int &&rr3 = std::move(rr1); // ok

after a call to std::move
- we cannot use
  - rr1
  - the value of a moved-from object
- we can
  - assign to it
  - destroy it
best practice:
- always call std::move not move
- do not use std::move casually:
  - Casually used in ordinary user code (as opposed to class implementation code), moving an object is more likely to lead to mysterious and hard-to-find bugs than to any improvement in the performance of the application.
- Outside of class implementation code such as move constructors or move-assignment operators, use std::move only when you are certain
  - that you need to do a move and
  - that the move is guaranteed to be safe
    - we must be absolutely certain that there can be no other users of the moved-from object

std::move
doesn’t actually move anything
returns an rvalue reference (a reference to its argument from which we may move)
it is a kind of cast

// possible implementation
template <typename T>
std::remove_reference_t<T>&& move(T&& t) {
    return static_cast<std::remove_reference_t<T>&&>(t);
}

Synthesized Move Constructor

Conditions under which the compiler synthesizes:

copy constructor:
- recall, always synthesized (if we do not declare our own copy constructor or copy-assignment operator)
move constructor:
- are not synthesized, if
  - a class defines its own copy constructor, copy-assignment operator, or destructor
    - thus, some classes do not have a move constructor or a move-assignment operator → copy is used in place of move
- are synthesized, only if
  - the class doesn’t define any of its own copy-control members
  - and every nonstatic data member of the class can be moved
    - what means “can be moved”?
      - The compiler can move
        
        members of built-in type.
        
        members of a class type if the member’s class has the corresponding move operation

// the compiler will synthesize the move operations for X and hasX
struct X {
  int i;          // built-in types can be moved
  std::string s;  // string defines its own move operations
};
struct hasX {
  X mem;          // X has synthesized move operations
};
X x, x2 = std::move(x);         // uses the synthesized move constructor
hasX hx, hx2 = std::move(hx);   // uses the synthesized move constructor

Move-Assignment Operator

a non-template non-static member function with the name operator= that takes exactly one parameter (…) of type
- T&&,
- const T&&,
- volatile T&&, or
- const volatile T&&.

class-name& class-name::operator=(class-name&&) 	// (1)

called when the rhs is an rvalue:
- “is called whenever it is selected by overload resolution, e.g. when an object appears on the left-hand side of an assignment expression, where the right-hand side is an rvalue of the same or implicitly convertible type.”

Lippman:

A move assignment is defined similarly (as the move constructor)
- it is supposed to remove the value from its argument
does the same work as the destructor and the move constructor
if it will not throw any exceptions, we should make it noexcept
- to prevent library containers from automatically using the copy constructor in circumstances such as vector reallocation (see section “Move Constructor”)
like a copy-assignment operator
- must guard against self-assignment

StrVec &StrVec::operator=(StrVec &&rhs) noexcept
{
  // direct test for self-assignment "if (this != &rhs)":
  // why is this test necessary?
  // - when "a = a;", then the move assignment operator would NOT be called because the rhs "a" is an lvalue.
  // - when "a = std::move(a);", then the move assignment operator would be called because the rhs "std::move(a)" is an rvalue. 
  //   - in this case, "this == &r" would be true, so that the if condition "if (this != &rhs)" is necessary to prevent this form of self-assignment
  if (this != &rhs) {
    free();                     // free existing elements
    elements = rhs.elements;    // take over resources from rhs
    first_free = rhs.first_free;
    cap = rhs.cap;
    // leave rhs in a destructible state
    rhs.elements = rhs.first_free = rhs.cap = nullptr;
  }
  return *this;
}

requirements (like the move constructor):

destructible state: must ensure that the moved-from object is in a state in which the destructor can be run
- eg. by setting the pointer members of the moved-from object to nullptr
valid: must guarantee that the object remains valid
- valid object: one that can safely be given a new value or used in other ways that do not depend on its current value
- example:
- move from a string or container object:
  - we know that the moved-from object remains valid.
    - As a result, we can run operations such as as empty or size on moved-from objects.
  - However, we don’t know what result we’ll get.
  - therefore, programs should never depend on the value of a moved-from object!

Copy-and-Swap Assignment and Move

The assignment operator has a nonreference parameter, which means the parameter is copy initialized.

Depending on the type of the argument, copy initialization uses either the copy constructor or the move constructor; lvalues are copied and rvalues are moved.
As a result, this single assignment operator acts as both the copy-assignment and move-assignment operator.

class HasPtr {
  public:
    // added move constructor
    HasPtr(HasPtr &&p) noexcept : ps(p.ps), i(p.i) {p.ps = 0;}
    // assignment operator is both the move- and copy-assignment operator
    HasPtr& operator=(HasPtr rhs)
                { swap(*this, rhs); return *this; }
    // other members as in § 13.2.1 (p. 511)
};

Access Control and Encapsulation

“encapsulate” the implementation = “hide” the implementation

Access Specifiers

access Specifiers (to enforce encapsulation, i.e. hiding of implementation details)

public members: defines the interface
private members: encapsulate (i.e., hide) the implementation

The only difference between struct and class is the default access level:

If we use the struct keyword, the members defined before the first access specifier are public
if we use class, then the members are private

Best practice:

When we define a class intending for all of its members to be public, we use struct.
If we intend to have private members, then we use class.

Benefits of Encapsulation:

User code cannot inadvertently corrupt the state of an encapsulated object.
The implementation of an encapsulated class can change over time without requiring changes in user-level code.

Friends

Lip 7.3.4:

A class can allow another class or function to access its nonpublic members by making that class or function a friend
- friend class and friend function declarations (see Example 1)
  - may appear only inside a class definition
  - may appear anywhere in the class
- friend function definitions (see Example 2)
  - a friend function can be defined inside the class body
    - such functions
      - are implicitly inline (like all member functions defined inside the class - although friend functions are not members)
      - are implicitly assumed to be part of the surrounding scope
      - are not declared in the surrounding scope, so we must still provide a declaration outside of the class
friends
- are not members
- are not affected by the access control of the section in which they are declared
A friend declaration is not a general declaration of the function.
- we must also declare the function separately from the friend declaration (some compilers do not require this, but this is best practice)
best practice:
- group friend declarations together at the beginning or end of the class definition
- in addition to the friend declaration, declare each friend (outside the class) in the same header as the class
friendship is not transitive

Example 1:

// Making class Window_mgr a friend
class Screen {
  // Window_mgr members can access the private parts of class Screen
  friend class Window_mgr;
  // . . . rest of the Screen class
};

// Making a member function a friend
class Screen {
  // Window_mgr::clear must have been declared before class Screen
  friend void Window_mgr::clear(ScreenIndex);
  // . . . rest of the Screen class
};

Example 2:

// a friend declaration is not a declaration
struct X {
  friend void f() { /* friend function can be defined in the class body */ }
  X() { f(); }    // error: no declaration for f
  void g();
  void h();
};
void X::g() { return f(); }   // error: f hasn't been declared
void f();                     // declares the function defined inside X
void X::h() { return f(); }   // ok: declaration for f is now in scope

Data Member

TODO

Member Function

TODO

Special Member Function

source: cppreference

special member function: Some member functions are “special”: under certain circumstances they are defined by the compiler even if not defined by the user. They are:

Default constructor
Copy constructor
Move constructor
Copy assignment operator
Move assignment operator
Destructor

defaulted function: Special member functions are the only functions that can be “defaulted”, that is, defined using = default instead of the function body. (from: cppreference: member functions)

Functions that return *this

Such functions

return a reference to the object on which they are called
are lvalues, which means that they return the object itself, not a copy of the object.

Motivation: Without such functions we cannot execute a sequence of operations on the same object, such as

// move the cursor to a given position, and set that character
myScreen.move(4,0).set('#');

you can also call a member function based on whether

Member Type

aka Type Member, in cppreference: Member types (append #Member_types in the URL of a class template)
a class can define its own (local) types
- this type names may be either public or private
unlike ordinary members, members that define types must appear before they are used
- best practice: as a result, type members usually appear at the beginning of the class

Inheritance

Virtual Functions

a base class distinguishes
- functions that are type dependent
- functions that it expects its derived classes to inherit without change
the base class defines as virtual those functions it expects its derived classes to define for themselves
a derived class may include the virtual keyword on these functions but is not required to do so
any nonstatic member function, other than a constructor, may be virtual
the virtual keyword appears only on the declaration inside the class and may not be used on a function definition that appears outside the class body
a function that is declared as virtual in the base class is implicitly virtual in the derived classes as well
a virtual function must always be defined regardless of whether it is used (Lip 15.3)

class Quote {
public:
  std::string isbn() const;
  virtual double net_price(std::size_t n) const;
};

Class Derivation List

a colon followed by a comma-separated list of base classes
each of the base classes may have an optional access specifier

class Bulk_quote : public Quote { // Bulk_quote inherits from Quote
public:
  double net_price(std::size_t) const override;
};

`override` Specifier

since C++11
final and override specifiers appear after the parameter list (including any const or reference qualifiers) and after a trailing return
lets a derived class explicitly note that it intends a member function to override a virtual that it inherits

Dynamic Binding

Lip 15.1 - 15.3:

aka run-time binding
- “run-time” because the decision as to which version to run can’t be made until run time
“dynamic binding happens when a virtual function is called through a reference (or a pointer) to a base class”
- “The function that is called is the one that corresponds to the dynamic type of the object bound to that pointer or reference” (Lip 15.3)
“Member functions that are not declared as virtual are resolved at compile time, not run time”

// calculate and print the price for the given number of copies, applying any discounts
double print_total(ostream &os,
                   const Quote &item, size_t n)
{
  // depending on the type of the object bound to the item parameter
  // calls either Quote::net_price or Bulk_quote::net_price
  double ret = item.net_price(n);
  os << "ISBN: " << item.isbn() // calls Quote::isbn
     << " # sold: " << n << " total due: " << ret << endl;
  return ret;
}

because the item parameter is a reference to Quote, we can call this function on either a Quote object or a Bulk_quote object
because net_price is a virtual function, and because print_total calls net_price through a reference, the version of net_price that is run will depend on the type of the object that we pass to print_total (bulk is “dynamically bound” to item):

// basic has type Quote; bulk has type Bulk_quote
print_total(cout, basic, 20); // calls Quote version of net_price
print_total(cout, bulk, 20);  // calls Bulk_quote version of net_price

note: in the second print_total call, the dynamic type (run-time type) of the reference item in print_total differs from its static type (compile-time type)
- again, this works only if
  1. net_price is a virtual function AND
  2. the net_price call is made through a reference or pointer

// "base" is an expression that has a plain - nonreference and 
// nonpointer - type (unlike "item" in the example above)
base = derived;     // copies the Quote part of derived into base
base.net_price(20); // calls Quote::net_price; this call is resolved at compile time

`protected` Access Specifier

like any other code that uses the base class, a derived class may access the public members of its base class but may not access the private members
when a base class has members that it wants to let its derived classes use while still prohibiting access to those same members by other users, we specify such members after a protected access specifier

Direct Base vs Indirect Base

A direct base class is named in the derivation list.
An indirect base is one that a derived class inherits through its direct base class.

// In this hierarchy, Base is a direct base to D1 and an indirect base to D2. 

class Base { /* . . . */ };
class D1: public Base { /* . . . */ };
class D2: public D1 { /* . . . */ };

Each class inherits all the members of its direct base class.

`final` Specifier

to prevent a class from being used as a base
final and override specifiers appear after the parameter list (including any const or reference qualifiers) and after a trailing return

class NoDerived final { /* */ };    // NoDerived can't be a base class
class Base { /* */ };               // Last is final; we cannot inherit from Last
class Last final : Base { /* */ };  // Last can't be a base class
class Bad : NoDerived { /* */ };    // error: NoDerived is final
class Bad2 : Last { /* */ };        // error: Last is final

Any attempt to override a function that has been defined as final will be flagged as an error:

struct B {
  virtual void f1(int) const;
  virtual void f2();
  void f3();
};
struct D2 : B {
  // inherits f2() and f3() from B and overrides f1(int)
  void f1(int) const final; // subsequent classes can’t override f1(int)
};
struct D3 : D2 {
  void f2();              // ok: overrides f2 inherited from the indirect base, B
  void f1(int) const;     // error: D2 declared f2 as final
};

Pure Virtual Functions

a pure virtual function does not have to be defined
- BUT: we can provide a definition for a pure virtual. However, the function body must be defined outside the class.
  - that is, we cannot provide a function body inside the class
specify that a virtual function is a pure virtual by writing = 0 in place of a function body (i.e., just before the semicolon that ends the declaration)
- the = 0 may appear only on the declaration of a virtual function in the class body

Example:

// class to hold the discount rate and quantity
// derived classes will implement pricing strategies using these data
class Disc_quote : public Quote {
public:
  Disc_quote() = default;
  Disc_quote(const std::string& book, double price,
            std::size_t qty, double disc):
              Quote(book, price),
              quantity(qty), discount(disc) { }
  double net_price(std::size_t) const = 0;
protected:
  std::size_t quantity = 0;   // purchase size for the discount to apply
  double discount = 0.0;      // fractional discount to apply
};

we cannot define objects of this type directly

Abstract Base Classes

a class containing (or inheriting without overridding) a pure virtual function
defines an interface for subsequent classes to override
we cannot (directly) create objects of a type that is an abstract base class
we can define objects of classes that inherit from abstract base classes, so long as those classes override the pure virtual function(s)
- if they do not override the pure virtual functions those classes will be abstract as well

// Disc_quote declares pure virtual functions, which Bulk_quote will override
Disc_quote discounted;  // error: can't define a Disc_quote object
Bulk_quote bulk;        // ok: Bulk_quote has no pure virtual functions

Access Specifiers in the Derivation List

member access is controlled by
1. the access specifier for that member in the base class
2. the access specifier in the derivation list of the derived class

// Neither Pub_Derv nor Priv_Derv may access the private member priv_mem!
class Base {
public:
  void pub_mem(); // public member
protected:           
  int prot_mem;   // protected member
private:             
  char priv_mem;  // private member
};
struct Pub_Derv : public Base {
  // ok: derived classes can access protected members
  int f() { return prot_mem; }
  // error: private members are inaccessible to derived classes
  char g() { return priv_mem; }
};
struct Priv_Derv : private Base {
  // private derivation doesn't affect access in the derived class
  int f1() const { return prot_mem; }
};

the derivation access specifier has no effect on whether members (and friends) of a derived class may access the members of its own direct base class
the purpose of the derivation access specifier is to control the access that users of the derived class - including other classes derived from the derived class - have to the members inherited from Base:

// When the inheritance is public, members retain their access specification:
Pub_Derv d1;    // members inherited from Base are public
Priv_Derv d2;   // members inherited from Base are private
d1.pub_mem();   // ok: pub_mem is public in the derived class
d2.pub_mem();   // error: pub_mem is private in the derived class

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C++ Notes - Classes

Classes

Order of Compilation

Class Types

struct

union

Scope

Namespace

::ClassName

Constructors

Default Constructor

Constructor Initializer List

Initialization vs Assignment

Omitted Members

When constructor initializers are REQUIRED

Order of Member Initialization

Delegating Constructor

Converting Constructor

explicit

Constructors throwing Exceptions

Copy Control

Copy Constructor

Synthesized Copy Constructor

Copy-Assignment Operator

Synthesized Copy-Assignment Operator

Valuelike Copy-Assignment Operator

Pointerlike Copy-Assignment Operator

Copy-and-Swap Assignment Operator

Destructor

Synthesized Destructor

Destructors throwing Exceptions

Rule of 3/5/0

Moving Objects

Both Move Operations

Move Constructor

std::move

Synthesized Move Constructor

Move-Assignment Operator

Copy-and-Swap Assignment and Move

Access Control and Encapsulation

Access Specifiers

Friends

Data Member

Member Function

Special Member Function

Functions that return *this

Member Type

Inheritance

Virtual Functions

Class Derivation List

override Specifier

Dynamic Binding

protected Access Specifier

Direct Base vs Indirect Base

final Specifier

Pure Virtual Functions

Abstract Base Classes

Access Specifiers in the Derivation List

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`override` Specifier

`protected` Access Specifier

`final` Specifier